African American Poetry - The Players, The Times, The Themes, The Struggle!

African American Poetry is a form of literature that is basically an expressive and colorful form of the emotions of the black and enslaved populations of America. Many of the themes of early African American Poetry revolve around issues such as slavery, murder, familial problems, and lifestyle. The tone of most of the literary works of this era entertain an emotional tone rather than reserved philosophical style. This allows the poems to be more personal and engaging. The journey of African Americans in America from the days of slavery until now can be traced through the history of these poems.

This genre found its roots during the 18th and 19th centuries with poets such as Phillis Wheatley and orator Frederick Douglass, reaching an early high point with the Harlem Renaissance. It continues today with well known authors such as Toni Morrison, Maya Angelou and Walter Mosley. Many of issues explored in African American literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society, African American culture, racism, slavery, and equality.

One of the first most famous African American authors was poet Phillis Wheatley. She was well known for her book Poems on Various Subjects in 1773 which was published three years before American independence. Originally from Africa, Wheatley was captured and sold as a slave at the tender age of seven. She was then brought to America and owned by a Boston merchant.

At first she spoke no English, but by the time she was sixteen she had mastered the language. Her poetry won praises from many great leaders of the American Revolution, including George Washington. Despite this, many white people found it hard to believe that an African American woman could be so intelligent as to write poetry. Thus, Wheatley found herself in court trying to prove that she actually wrote her own poetry. Perhaps Wheatley's successful defense can be regarded as a true recognition of African American literature.

Jupiter Hammon was another early African American author who was actually considered the first published Black writer in America for his poem "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ with Penitential Cries" in early 1761. He was well remembered for his Address to the Negroes of the State of New York in 1786. This speech also planted the idea of a gradual emancipation as a way of ending slavery. According to public records, Hammon remained a slave until his death.

Another great poet was Paul Laurence Dunbar who was known for his poem, "The Poet". He wrote this a mere three years before his untimely death in 1906 at the age of 34. Dunbar was not only the most famous African American poet, but was also one of the most famous American poets, of his time. He was celebrated for his folk poetry about African Americans which was written in dialect—the "jingle in a broken tongue."

For more interesting tidbits on African American history visit http://www.allmattersafrican.com/ a website offering views and topical resources on issues such as African American art, African poetry and even about traditional African music.

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The Myth of Exodus and Genesis and the Exclusion of Their African Origins



A very good resource
Customer Reviews

The myth of genesis and exodus and its modern untrue historical perpetuations by the current self appointed custodians of Christianity, Judaism and Islam are examined and analyzed in this 74 paged document. The author sets the record straight by linking all three to their Afrikan pagan origins and with real individuals, making historical corrections where they are due.

For example there are comparisons, between what was allegedly said by King Solomon and what was actually written by Amenemope, and comparison between the biblical ten commandments with the actual written 147. There are dates along with mapping diagrams showing the approximate time of genesis and exodus and what would have occurred in truth.

In addition, by showing that all involved during the alleged mass movements and cultural war fares were of Afrikan tribal descent, the author shows that biblical events that occurred were mostly Afrikan continental history, and spiritual allegory. A very good reference source with a great bibliography. For more detail see African Origins of the Major Western Religions to get an in-depth outlook on this subject.

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A Chronology of the Bible: Challenge to the Standard Version (B.C.P. Pamphlet)


Editorial Reviews
About the Author
Yosef-ben-Jochannan (affectionately known as Dr. Ben) is a master teacher with a forceful command of ancient and contemporary history. He uses wit, humor, and common sense to accent history and expose historical distortions. Dr. Ben has taught on the faculty of colleges and universities in the United States and abroad. His most recent assignment was as Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Languages, Al Azhar University (Arab Republic of Egypt). Prior to that, he served as Adjunct Professor of History and Egyptology at Cornell University's Africana Studies Research Center.

Customer Reviews:

A beautiful to the point book.... A MUST HAVE.
this small pamphlet of information is very helpful. it points out the first typed bible, first bible written in english and also bibles that were written to satisfy certain kings and a lot of other good points. it points out the many bibles that were printed in the u.s. which were 16 different versiions. i feel sorry for christians and catholics. see this pamphlet of information just re-affirms for me to keep following my african roots in religion.

i wonder what religion this author is. i doubt chrisitian. i believe these bibles in america change so often because they have to always trick or keep the next generation away from the truth. because of authors like dr. ben and books such as this i can easily pick out everything african out of the bible and place it in my heart. although im not christian or muslim or any thing thats popular in religion, i read the bible to pluck all black ancient history for my research. i also read the bible because most christians and catholics dont and i love to know more than they do about their own religoin and i usually put christian and catholics in their place using their own book against them.

With books such as this one with the symbol of life on the cover, now i see why black celebs such as chuck d., erika bahdu, etc have used the symbol of life (african cross) on their album covers. its all african. i love dr. ben and all black man who looked death in the face and still brought forth this valuable information of truth to you and i. we all know blacm men were getting killed all the time for printing the truth. i love dr. ben for not being afraid of using freedom of speech especially durning his time in the earlier 1900's when we were really being lynched an killed just because we wanted human rights. THANK YOU DR. BEN.

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Black Authors

African-American or Black authors, the flip side of the American literary idealists, are traversing barriers to enter into the mainstream writing and publishing world. Their inspiration is the development and popularity of indigenous “black” music, dance, visual arts, architecture, and famous names in different fields.

The journey has been long and eventful, with authors being limited to specific genres dictated by lifestyle and social place in American society. The early works were mostly memoirs, slave narratives, Sunday school literature, or oratory dealing with twin issues of racism and slavery.

Lone voices were there, but the real breakthrough came with the Harlem Renaissance, centered in the Harlem area of New York. This was the intervening period between the two World Wars, and the movement brought with it a strong sense of pride for Americans in general. African-Americans discovered a sense of racial pride and looked to their surroundings and history for inspiration. The Civil Rights movement was another turning period, leaving a powerful impression on black authors of 1960s such as W E B Dubois, Ralph Ellison, James Baldwin, Alex Haley, and Richard Wright; female African-American authors including Alice Walker, Maya Angelou, Toni Morrison, and Gloria Naylor expanded the theme with black protagonists. Topics like slavery, racial discrimination, evangelism, black ethos and roots inspired future generations of authors.

Black authors are now topping best-seller lists simply by moving beyond categorization of style and substance. Another reason for growing popularity of Black authors is the support of Oprah Winfrey and other well-wishers, on-line media campaigns, blogs, web pages, author readings, literary works, critiques, and essays. The change is visible, and Black voices are being heard and noticed, especially E. Lynn Harris who is unafraid to dabble in taboo topics of black gay fiction. A new generation of young writers, still in their thirties, such as Junot Diaz (Drown), Edwidge Danticat (Krik! Krak!, The Farming of Bones) and Patricia Powell (The Pagoda), are intent on leaving their imprints with historical novels and ingenuous images of race and cultural identity.

Authors provides detailed information on Authors, Black Authors, Trinity Authors, Book Authors and more. Authors is affiliated with Calligraphy Fonts.

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Religious Identity, Cultural Resistance and African American Civil Right Movements

Introduction

Afro-Americans that had been transferred forcefully to New World had had to convert to the religion of their masters and even change their African origin names to new European names. Thus, they were empty of the elements that always they were identified by them. Converting to Christianity, changing the name, being separated from homeland and having no human rights broke down whole of their self-identity and social identity. As Turner mentioned, "In setting terms of pre-twentieth century racial discourse in America, attempted to eradicate all aspects of African heritage in the slave quarters by stripping slaves of their culture, thus leaving them powerless. (Turner, 2004)

Reactions to this new situation, among the Blacks were different. Some of them easily subordinated to the masters and even because of showing loyalty to their masters, became the supervisor of the others, some obeyed the rules without full consent. The other started to resist against the White's power. This resistance had been practiced in various ways, from not working properly to clear disobedience and rarely violent rebellions.

Resistance against the discriminatory system among the African American, historically has divided to several periods. After prohibition of slavery that proclaim it illegal throughout the 13 Amendment, which had been ratified in 1865, the most important and crucial period was the Civil Rights Movement which started after WWII and lasted up to now and has led to condition that is more equal for African Americans.

During the Civil Rights Movement, three streams could be defined in terms of resistance against the white supremacy. Martin Luther King was representative of moderation and integrationism while fighting against racial discrimination, Black Panther Party was the revolutionary strands, and Nation of Islam was representative of Black Nationalism and Muslim communities.

Within theses streams, Nation of Islam that most of its members were African American converts and conversion to Islam as turning back to the African's origin religion could be interpreted as means of cultural resistance against the dominant Christian discourse and making a different religious identity as a sub-branch of the cultural identity. In other word, many African-Americans viewed Christianity as the White man's religion and associate conversion to Islam with recovering their ethnic heritage (Edgerly). Nevertheless, they transformed Islam to meet demands of survival and resistance in this "strange Christian land" (Turner, 2004).

Cultural identity and role of resistance against the dominant power to shape an identity and preserve it from distortion, has been one of the great part of debates among the intellectuals who think and work in cultural studies paradigm. Resistance has different forms and every individual, groups and communities could resist against the dominant power according to its own point of view and priorities. When the prominent discourse of a society is injustice and discriminatory against some parts of it, struggle for gaining power and resistance, would involve every part of it.

This pattern is clearly seen in the juxtaposition in the United States of Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth, Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. (Coates, 1999) that among them Malcolm X as a leader and spokesman of Nation of Islam involved in a cultural resistance in a actual and symbolic battle for gaining more power. Symbolic battles are usually acted out against the background of others sharing the same ideology. For Malcolm X, religion was a means for the public dramatiza¬tion of problems of social disintegration and distinction. (Wohlrab-Sahr, 1999) among African Americans who converted to Islam
In this article as the topic shows, three subjects and their relations with each other, would be discussed; religious identity, cultural resistance and Civil Rights movement. Religiosity as an important part of everyone's identity has a great role in differentiating some people from the others. During the Civil Rights movement, the rate of conversion to Islam among the African Americans who had suffered for a long time of inequality in social and cultural domains had been grown. This changing the religion from Christianity to Islam could be interpreted as a part of cultural resistance against the WASP-White Anglo Saxon Protestant- hegemony by emphasizing on a different religious identity. This resistance led to reinforcing 'Nation of Islam' as an association that believed in separatism, nationalism and Black supremacy.

Islam in African American History

Muslim population makes up about 6% of the population in the United States. The majority of the converts to this growing religion has been and still is occurring within the African-Americans' community (a little over 11% of America's population) although Muslim immigrants constitute almost sixty percent of the Muslims in U.S. (Edgerly).

Islam and Muslim population has passed several periods until reaching to this situation. The role of Islam as a non-Christian and counter-dominant religion and conversion to it was crucial in establishing an independent identity for Blacks. Historically, the main religion of most of the Afro-Americans before slavery had been Islam. After transferring to the New World, Blacks lost all of their freedom and they had to convert to Christianity as their masters' religion. In this condition, rarely some blacks were able to refuse Christianity. Bilali and after him his brother Salih Bilali who were living isolated with their followers and tribes in Sapelo Island and St.Simon island during the antebellum period were two example of resistance against this situation and erecting an Islamic community (Turner,2004). The important point is that even in 1930s, Bilali's descendants could remember his ancestors' legacy after almost 100 years and generation-by-generation they preserved their Islamic identity.

Historically, there were four important strands in the development of Islam in the United States in twentieth century that three of them were started in the 1920s. The first was Sunni Islam of the Muslim immigrants from the Middle East and the Islamic Mission of America, which was conservative, orthodox, Universalist, and also politically conservative. The second, the Moorish Science Temple movement, was heterodox, a racial-separatist interpretation of Islam, and Pan-Africanist with a "Moroccon" cultural base. Third one was the Ahmediyya Movement in Islam was heterodox, multiracial, and politically mixed: the Ahmadis were advocates of both Pan-Islam and Indian nationalism. And fourth, is the Nation of Islam that became more powerful during the Civil Rights movement and is center of my discussion here (Turner, 2004).

The first actual Mass African-American Muslim sect and movement was the Moorish Science Temple Divine, founded in 1913 in Newark, New Jersey by Timothy Drew (Noble Drew Ali) who called himself the 'prophet of the city' or the 'second prophet of Islam' in 1913 . He was familiar with Indian philosophy and "central Quranic concepts such as justice, a purposeful creation of mankind, freedom of will, and humankind as the generator of personal action" In 1925, the name of the sect was changed to the Moorish Science Temple of America'. (Edgerly, Turner, 2004).

The other Islamic movement was Ahmadiyya. The Ahmadiyya Movement had been started in India in 1889 by its founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (Edgerly, ...). Nevertheless, in America, Mufti Muhammad Sadiq, found it and made the 'Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam' the first multiracial model for American Islam during the 1920s. From 1921 to 1925, Sadiq made 1,025 American converts. Many of the Ahmadiyya converts were Black residents of Chicago and Detroit (Turner, 2004).
Nation of Islam, the most longstanding Islamic movement, which is still alive after loosing some of its leaders, was founded in 1930 by W.D.Fard among the poor black people in Detroit. After disappearing of W.D.Fard, his most trusted discipline, Elijah Muhammad became the leader of the movement. Under the leadership of Elijah Muhammad, the nation of Islam evolved from a local movement to the most powerful Islamic organization in America (Turner, 2004).

Elijah Muhammad and W.D.Fard wanted to reconstruct African-American cultural, political, and religious identity and "make African Americans aware of Islam, its power and potential" (Turner in Bobo et al, 2004). In doing so, Elijah Muhammad proclaimed distinctive doctrines. The most important and controversial one was his contention that whites were by nature evil. They were snakes who were incapable of doing right, devils who would soon be destroyed by God's righteous judgment. White people, therefore, were identified as the sole cause of black oppression (Cone, 1995). Therefore, Elijah Muhammad as a way to resist against the constructed identity for African American as naturally inferior and unable in doing thoughtful jobs or relying on some Biblical justification for explaining Blackness as a sign of evilness, Elijah Muhammad made up the white Satan.

In that condition, Nation of Islam became a model of racial-separatist identity for African-American Muslims and just Black people were allowed to be a member of NOI (Turner, 2004).

Obviously, at that era or probably still now, African-American Muslims were not united but had different syntheses of religion, politics, and culture but the unifying factor for them was Islam- maybe in different versions- as a means for resistance against the WASP ideology and gaining equal rights to provide a new and independent identity for African American Muslims. In this way, Black ghetto dwellers were attracted to the NOI by its stress on racial pride and economic self-help (Verney, 2003).

Longstand¬ing African American efforts to secure legal rights and access to societal resources have benetted immigrant Muslims and helped Muslim identities become part of the range of American identities (Moore, 1995,Leonard, 2003).

This identity now serves other functions such as a defense against the 'domineering colonial or post-colonial contempt for their [Muslim] culture' (Leonard, 2003).

After death of Elijah Muhammad, his grand son, Wallace D. Muhammad became the supreme minister of the Nation of Islam. He renamed the Nation of Islam the "World community of Al-Islam in the west", in 1976, the "American Muslim Mission" in 1980, and the "Muslim American Community" in the 1990s. However, the Nation of Islam went on by Louis Farrakhan leadership.

NOI membership reached 65,000 to 100,000 by 1960 and some 250,000 by 1969. The Nation also enjoyed considerable influence and respect in the wider black community, with its official newspaper Muhammad Speaks enjoying a weekly circulation of 600,000 by the early to mid-1970s. (Verney, 2003)

Nowadays, Black Americans who are majority of Muslims in U.S., make up about 42 percent of the Muslims in the United States. South Asian Muslims constitute almost 25 percent, Arabs approximately 12 percent, and the remaining 21 percent are from Iran, West Africa, South East Asia, Eastern Europe, and White America. California (one million Muslims), New York (800,000 Muslims), and Illinois (400,000 Muslims) are the states with the largest Muslim populations (Turner, 2004). Dealing with the growth in the number of African American Muslims, conversion has played a great role. At some periods, conversion to Islam was reinforced by conversion of the informal cultural and social leader of the society like famous actors or actress, well-known sportsman or sportswomen and national champions. This phenomenon was very influential in 1960s. For example initially welcomed as an alternative to the louche Sonny Liston, new World Heavyweight Boxing Champion Cassius Clay, shortly after winning the title he announced his conversion to the Nation of Islam and took the name Muhammad Ali (Verney, 2003). Ali's public image suffered as a result because the society would not accept a champion who denies its norms. In American society, Clay by his skin color was distinguished from the majority, and he himself made a very important distinction by his denial of the Christianity. Muhammad Ali Clay's conversion to Islam showed that American society is still discriminatory in terms of skin color, race and ethnicity, religion and etc and they do not care whether he was a national champion or not.

The assumption is that these trends increasingly render African Americans suscepti¬ble to alluring messages of meritocracy, political equality, and race neutrality, which can confine and thwart African American resis¬tance against oppression(Schiele, 2002).

In This sense, conversion to a new religion is a kind of cultural resistance. In every society, the dominant power is able to advertise its ideology whether religious or non-religious. When majority of a society is Christian, converting to Islam is a sign of refusing the dominant power.

Conversion and Cultural Resistance

Cultural resistance is a path for trying to shape a new identity by referring to the cultural origins and historical roots. For African Americans who were separated from every thing that could give them a sense of identity, seeking a new means to shape a collective identity that in some extent could differentiate them from the White majority, Islam as the newly chosen world view, could give the other means for resistance. Monika Wohlrab-Sahr in her article; 'Conversion to Islam: Between Syncretism and Symbolic Battle', identified two forms in conversion to Islam: ''Syncretism'' and ''symbolic battle'' are distinguished as two different modes of adopting Islam and of relating to one's original frame of reference (Wohlrab-Sahr, 1999). Syncretism means merging the old beliefs with new ones and shaping a complex unit of them. She mentioned that becoming believer of this new religion is a kind of alteration, believing in new religion without completely denying the old one and making a tolerance between them. In terms of conversion theory, these cases of adopting Islam should be labeled as cases of alternation. The new religion corresponds with the new circumstances in life, but does not express a fundamental reorientation. The symbolic space becomes enlarged, the old is integrated into the new, and a third situation is created. (Wohlrab-Sahr, 1999)

On the other hand, those parts of the society who convert to a new religion, not alteration, would enter in 'Symbolic battle' with the other parts as a kind of cultural resistance against the dominant symbolic system.

Dealing with African American Muslims history, cultural resistance was practiced through Islamic rites. During the slavery era, the slaves' knowledge of Arabic and of the religion of Islam were key factors in their identification as African Muslims. In other word, African Muslims were noted for their bold efforts both to resist conversion to Christianity and to convert other African to Islam (Turner in Bobo etal, 2004). Therefore, conversion as a form of symbolic battle takes into account that the identity transformations connected with it are more than just situational adjustments that can easily be revised; they are permanent forms of transformation that imply the rejection of former commitments. (Wohlrab-Sahr, 1999)

In conversion, forms of public dramatization play an important role as well. (Wohlrab-Sahr, 1999) form of clothing, shaving or having beard, wearing hijab for women Muslims, saying prayer in public , Arabic names, writing in Arabic were different forms of Cultural resistance within the different movements.

In their quest for an alternate signification and identity, the Moorish Americans after converting to Islam, immediately changed their names as a primitive part of the identity to Arabic names and start to learn to write in Arabic. They also wore Black fezzes and white turbans (Turner, 2004) as exercising resistance through clothing and showing distinct appearance.

In Nation of Islam, Elijah Muhammad understood their mission as the establishment of Islam as a permanent religious alternative in the United States in the twentieth century. The basic social fact that predisposing Blacks to conversion to the Nation of Islam during this formative period was the great migration (1915-1930) (Turner, 2004). Elijah Muhammad required all converts to change their surname to X in order to eradicate their slave names. The X signified and symbolized the original name and former identity that was lost when Black people were taken from Africa by their enslavers (Turner, 2004).

Elijah Muhammad, in a radical perspective, instructed followers that only the Black race was the original creation of Allah. He believed all other races were not of divine origin but the result of a series of genetic experiments by an evil black scientist, Yacub. The last, and most depraved, of Yacub's creations was the white race. He called White people 'blue-eyed devils' as opposing the term Negro that was product of White supremacy. In his point of view, Whites were the natural enemy of all black people (Verney, 2000). Making a myth Black supremacy to oppose the dominant myth of White supremacy could be interpreted as resistance and cultural revenge of the White people who were brutal with Blacks throughout the slavery.

Since Islam was the "Black-Man's" religion and the Black-Man is the superior type of hu¬man and black people are by nature good and divine, they must be separated from whites so they can avoid the latter's hour of total destruction. (Cone, 1995, Haddad, 1986, 1997, Ammar, 2004)
Therefore, emergence of the Nation of Islam whose main premise of their teachings was that African Americans were, in fact, Muslims and that they had been separated from their true identity, gave African Americans a renewed sense of self-identity. Black people began to outwardly challenge the idea that they were an inferior race of people and gaining increasing self-respect for their race. Nation of Islam helped bring African Americans together and form a collective identity for them (Ammar, 2004).

The majority of those who joined the Nation of Islam were young, economically disadvantaged, African-American males from Christian backgrounds. Up to 80% of a typical congregation were between the ages of 17 and 35(Edgerly). There had been some causes for the conversion of these Afro-Americans to Islam that one of them was that prior to the Civil Rights movement the Black Church was criticized for allegedly promoting otherworldliness and political passivity among African American laity, instead of pressing for racial and economic justice (Ellison). Therefore, Islam could be a qualified alternative for whom were not satisfied by churches.

During that pre-Civil Rights period, Malcolm X who was arrested for criminality, converted to Islam in prison and later became a hero of Civil Rights movement. He established multiracial orthodox Islam as an option for African-American Muslims. Then he explored the religious and cultural links between African-American Islam and its West African roots (Turner in Bobo et al, 2004) and proposed to Black Muslims for rethinking their African roots as a means of resistance and collectivity.

He attracted tens of thousands with his emphasis on cultural concerns, discipline, solidarity of the brotherhood, and African identity (Edgerly). According to definition of 'Organic Intellectual' by Antonio Gramsci, Malcolm X fits this subject position who believed that to develop an effective "Afro-American liberation movement," African Americans needed to rethink their entire experience in the United States (Rabaka, 2002).

As an organic intellectual, who had gained public attention Malcolm X challenged the existing views on race relations and religion while firmly establishing Islam as a religious alternative for African Americans (Smallwood,2005). He emphasized on history along with religion, politics, sociology, and culture in an attempt to mobilize African Americans in their communities to address their condition. Malcolm X's support of Black people leaves a legacy that manifested itself in Black cultural pride and organizing that occurred in the late 1960s. (Smallwood, 2005). Malcolm for resisting against the dominant discourse refuses all of it.

In fact, he stated, "Don't go by their game, and don't play the game by their rules. Let them know now that this is a new game, and we've got some new rules, and these rules mean anything goes, anything goes". In other words, the "new game" and the "new rules" meant for Malcolm that African Americans needed to develop and adopt oppositional ideology, or an alternative series of thought, belief, and value systems "Black-minded" enough to both explain and criticize their oppression and their oppressors' ideology (Rabaka, 2002).

Toward the end of his life, Malcolm's 'jihad of words' that could be considered as a symbol of cultural opposition to the dominant power had shifted from a focus on religion to scathing critique of capitalism as an intrinsically evil economic system with connection to global racial oppression and imperialism (Turner,2004). In this way, he began to play a complete role of an 'Organic Intellectual' in terms of Gramscian Marxism to wage a symbolic battle against the current game whose injustice rules were determined by White powers.

Conclusion:

Identity, according to Hall and du Gay, is not a matter of 'being' but of 'becoming', especially in the modern, postcolonial world, where the search for identity is 'not the so-called return to roots, but a coming-to-terms with "our routes", which is a more denitely discursive approach to identity' (du Gay, 1997 cited by Roussou, 2006). During the process of becoming, resistance against the untrue presumptions and prejudice representations is a means of making true image for every individual. Resistance could be very manifested or concealed. Manifest resistance demonstrates in public protests that at the extreme could be violent rebellion. Concealed resistance is plasticized in symbolic battle by cultural means like rhetoric, literature, music and even sports.

African Americans in looking for an independent identity have used all of these means. In music, they sought to rediscover African American rhythm and improvisation. They played Jazz as an African rooted style and tried to insert it to American music or Rap, Rock and Roll musicians who tried not to use western rhythms as a kind of protesting music for showing the dissatisfaction of the status quo by different groups and mostly Afro-Americans.

Therefore both of the return to roots and routes has been exercised by Black Americans. Within these various kinds of resistances, conversion to Islam in a Christian society could be considered as a key factor. They convert to Islam as their original and primitive religion, which had been distorted by white Americans and adopt it with American condition.

Conversion could be conceptualized as a form of symbolic battle presupposes taking the symbols and forms of articulation, in which religious and identity change is expressed, seriously. (Wohlrab-Sahr, 1999)

Dawoud Assad, president of U.S. Council of Masjid, says that "eighty-five to ninety percent of our converts are black ..." (Turner, 2004:464).

Although the number of converts is small, the phenomenon of conversion to Islam in contemporary western societies is nevertheless structurally relevant, because of its double frame: the religious, cultural, and social frame that converts turn away from, but stay related to, on the one side; and the new religious and cultural frame that they have chosen, but with which they cannot completely merge, on the other side (Wohlrab-Sahr, 1999).

Conversion to Islam is a sign of denying the dominant religious discourse that has made many oppressive relations in American society, is examined its implications for African American resistance.

Islam may provide more some important answers to African American economic, political, and cultural questions that have not been resolved by black Christian leaders. Already, in black urban areas across the country, Black Christian leaders are organizing special seminars to educate their people about Islam and to stem the tide of what they perceive as an alarming rate of African American conversion to Islam. Mike Wilson believes that "if the conversion rate continues unchanged, Islam could become the dominant religion in Black urban areas by the year 2020"
(Turner, 2004:466).

References:

Ammar, N.H. (2004), 'Muslims in Prison: A Case Study from Ohio State Prisons', in International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Vol.48, pp414-428.

Coates, R.D (1999), 'Social Action, Radical Dialectics, and Popular Protests: Treatment of African American Leaders and Intellectuals by the Press', in Journal of Black Studies, Vol.30, pp85-102.

Cone,H.J.(1995), "Martin and Malcolm; Integrationism and Nationalism in African American Religious history", in Hacket.D.G, ed, 'Religion and American Culture', London New York, Routledge.

Ellison, C.G., 'Contemporary African American religion: What have we learned from NSBA?' http://www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/prba/perspectives/winter1997/cellison1.pdf

Roussou, N. (2006), 'Cypriot Television, Dialect Productions and Demotic Culture: Urbanization, Westernization or New Resistance Identities?' in European Journal of Communication, Vol. 21, pp89-102.

Rabaka, A. (2002) 'Malcolm X and/as Critical Theory: Philosophy, Radical Politics, and the African American Search for Social Justice', in Journal of Black Studies, Vol.33, pp145-165.

Schiele, J.H. (2002), 'Mutations of Eurocentric Domination and Their Implications for African American Resistance', in Journal of Black Studies Vol.32, pp 439-453.

Shiach, M. (1994), 'Feminism and Popular Culture' in Storey, J. (ed) 'Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, a reader' , New York, Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Turnur, R.B.( 2004), 'Islam in the African-American Experience', in Bobo.J, Hudley.C, Michel.C, (2004), 'The Black Studies Reader', London, Routhledge.

Verney.K, (2000) 'Black Civil Rights in America', London and New York, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

Verney.K, (2003), 'African American and US Popular Culture', London and New York, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

Wohlrab-Sahr, M. (1999), 'Conversion to Islam: Between Syncretism and Symbolic Battle', in Journal of Social Campus, Vol.46, pp 351-362.

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African American Art

People who find themselves displaced from their homeland and transferred to a foreign country would need to exert a lot of effort at “assimilating” the local culture. This is because doing so may involve disregarding their own set of beliefs so that they would be able to conform to the culture of their “new” country. African Americans had to shift their understanding of art so that their artistic creations would be appreciated in America. To better understand this concept, an appreciation of the history of African American art is needed.

Art in the time of slavery

The period of slavery in America saw how many African Americans had to shift their paradigms with regard to art, sticking to what were the accepted forms of art in America, which were mostly influenced by Europe. During this time, the African American artists were defined as “slave artisans with other skills such as quilt making.” However, this definition later changed to “painters of white families’ portraits,” and in some cases, the painters were called “portrait painters of well-to-do free persons of color.” Some of these painters gained acclaim and were able to buy their freedom from their masters by bartering their artwork.

After the Civil War

In the period after the Civil War, many African American artists were being recognized for their talent. Up to the 1920s, most of the artists of this time produced works that were displayed in museums and studios. However, the works that were produced during these times still conformed with European tradition and the training that these artists received were still mainly characterized as European.

“The Harlem Renaissance”

In the late 1920s, different African American artists formed a movement called Negro or Harlem Renaissance. This opened the door for African American art, in the form of literature, music, knowledge and visual arts, to become explored and rediscovered, which also led to the upliftment of the individuality of African Americans as a people. The decade that followed this was considered the “Renaissance” of African American art, where artists broke free from foreign influences to discover their own unique art form. From this period on, African American artists were free to express themselves based on what has been discovered during this “Renaissance.”

The rough path that Black artists in America had to take is a testament to what they had to undergo to “regain” their identity as a people. Give this, the history of African American art shows not only the struggles of Black artists towards freedom from foreign influences but also of self-discovery.

African Art provides detailed information on African Art, African Tribal Art, African Wildlife Art, African American Art and more. African Art is affiliated with Abstract Art Paintings.

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Why Black Literature Is Important

When I first published my first novel, The Ebony Tree, I'll never forget how I found out later that my then, 23 year-old niece ran through the house and screamed with laughter, after she read the book. Now mind you, my niece had always been an avid reader of white romance novels since her early teens, but reading my book was like landing on Mars for her. She reportedly asked her mother, "Mama, did Aunt Maxine make this up? Did you guys actually 'play white'?"

My sister-in-law told her, "Not only did we play white, we dreamed in white. That's all we ever saw in the books or on TV were white characters. It seemed like they had all the fun."

Typically, most Blacks grew up in the 50's with pictures on the wall of white Jesus, white Santa Claus and even white angels. There was nothing in the media or in books that reflected the beauty of blackness. Needless to say, if there were any books beside the Bible in the home, they were not Black books. It sent a silent message that Black was ugly and white was beautiful. This was as negative of an experience as when reading was forbidden to slaves.

Fastforward almost half a century. I know from rearing my children, who are now all adults, that having had Black books in the home was, and remains, a good influence on their self-esteem and confidence. When a person sees himself reflected in the literature he or she reads, it indirectly helps build a better self-image. For in literature, we find our role models, our archetypes from which we can learn life lessons. More specifically, in African American literature, the stories are relevant to the Black experience in this country. These experiences range from people coming from different socio-economic classes, from varying urban to country regions, to different professions. We often get the Alger Horatio rags-to-riches story to its reversal, the riches-to-rags story. Most of these stories make social commentaries on how we all play a part in the symphony of the American Dream.

"Black Writers on The Rise," the headlines screamed. I believed them. After all, seeing the different genres of African American books in the local, predominantly Black bookstores, who wouldn't think that? Hadn't things improved for us as Black writers, since the late 1980's? However, after attending the Book Expo of America (formerly the American Book Association) held in Los Angeles, California in late April 1999, I had a rude awakening. Because of seeing all the books in the predominantly Black book stores scattered throughout LA, I had been lulled into a false sense of complacency that we, as African American writers, were being published at the same rate as mainstream books. To say the least, I was disillusioned.

Yes, The Book Expo of 1999 was a big eye-opener. The bad news is this: Our problems (as African American writers) are far from over. When I compared the books represented by the major publishers, I saw that the percentage of Black books is infinitesimally small compared to that of other races. Not one to be a soothsayer, but I feel the number of African American books can dissappear like they did after the Harlem Renaissance, after the late 40's, and after the Revolutionary 60's, if we don't take control of our own written words.

However, the good news is this. The increase that is witnessed in the number of African American books can be attributed, by and large, not only to more Black publishing companies, Black editors, but to self-published books. Given the advent of desktop publishing, the Internet, and Black book clubs, many writers are taking control of our destines and empowering ourselves by publishing our own stories.

So consider these questions. What are other ways having more Black books have helped? Is it easier to get published by mainstream as a Black writer, in a tight publishing market? Why is self-publishing so important, particularly for Black writers, if you can't get your books published by mainstream? To encourage other writers to pen their stories, here are some of the good things Black literature has brought to this country.

1. Salvation. To paraphrase Toni Cade Bambara, fiction snatches you back from the edge as a Black person in America.

2. Continuity with your ancestors. To paraphrase Toni Morrison, "If you are not writing about the Village which you come from then you are not writing about anything."

3. A reading audience who is eager to see stories that reflect their reality.

4. A way of restoring history which was not allowed to be written down in the past.

5. A way of lifting up the next generation through the printed word, in addition to our oral tradition, which is reflected in rap, Hip Hop, and Poetry.

6. A way of promoting racial understanding for other ethnic groups. I learn a lot about other parts of the Diaspora when I read books by Haitian Americans, or when I read Chinese American literature, or any other culture's literature.

Recently, a teacher told me at a book signing, that a study was done at her school. It was found that all the little Black girls said that their image of beauty was still a blond, blue-eyed child. Imagine! This was December, 1999! It reminds me of the tragic tale in Toni Morrison's book, The Bluest Eyes, where the scourged Black child, Pecola, went insane, all because she wanted blue eyes. This book's setting was circa 1940.

My point is this. If we keep writing our stories down, we, as African American writers, may not ever have parity in the world of books. But at the same time, we won't have another generation of little Black girls playing white, like my friends and I did, with scarves and towels draped over our hair, which we felt wasn't beautiful enough. Or perhaps, we won't have little girls going crazy like the fictional Pecola did.

Copyright 2006 Black Butterfly Press

Dr. Maxine Thompson is an author, literary agent, literary coach, ghostwriter and Internet Radio Show Host. You can email her at maxtho@sbcglobal.net. You can sign up for a free newsletter at http://www.maxinethompson.com

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A Brief History of the Civil Rights Movement

American civil rights movement occurred between the year 1955 and 1968. It was movement by African American seeking judicial reforms in America constitution against racial discrimination.

This protest was in United States when African-Americans demanded abolishment of racial discrimination from their fellow Native Americans. Though this lasted for around twenty years, the success of racial discrimination and social equality are celebrated even today. America made history to erect first black American, President Erect Barrack Obama.
Seeking equality goes in tandem with unrest; civil rights movement was not exceptional. There was rebellion and blood shedding. There are numerous stories and events for the civil rights movement in various parts of the world, all in a major theme to search for justice, end discrimination and slavery in various forms.

The African-American civil movement is the famous of all. The movement was more of collaborative efforts for Africa-Americans to attain respect, dignity, economic empowerment and promote social equality for all. Instigated by injustices, SNN, CORE and SCLC led the movement for equality.

Major injustices that led to this movement included segregation of schools, discrimination in public transport system, court procedure for majority, military misuse of power over the black American, assassination of black leaders, slavery and unconstitutional favors.

Mass actions, sit-ins and freedom rides riddled civil rights movements. Among the main characters were Martin King Junior; who was later assassinated, Reverend John Duffy, Septima Clarke, Bernice Robinson and Esau Jenkins among others. They are heroes in American history.

Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is of amongst the four most reputed United States federal holidays in commemoration of an individual contribution in civil right movement. It is observed in May 3, each year.

Briefly, black power movement solved racial discrimination, exploitation and violence for the non-American natives. This led to freedom and economic growth.

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Pauline Go is an online leading expert in education industry. She also offers top quality articles like: Famous People Biography, Paul Wolfowitz Biography

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The Importance of Knowing One's Heritage

Knowledge is like a garden: if it is not cultivated, it cannot be harvested – African Proverb

Up until recently, I was very ignorant about my heritage. The only Black history that was taught to me was during Black History Month. Even then, I only learned a part, not the whole. According to some of my grade and high school history textbooks, my people were nothing more than savages whose only contributions to the world were farming and slaves.

Only when I came to college did I learn about the rich and interesting history that is my cultural birthright. Stories of women such as Ellen Craft, a slave who disguised herself as a white male while her husband pretended to be her servant in order to escape the chains of bondage. I was like a kid in a candy store. I had so much information and so little time to learn everything that was hidden from me. I immediately became angry. Angry at the school system that had bamboozled me and so many other generations of Black children. Angry at myself not seeking my heritage sooner. But this anger was a good thing. I would never allow myself to be this ignorant again and I would make sure that my own children would know about their heritage, with or without the school’s help.

However, there are many in the African-American community who are unaware of their heritage, other than what is shown on television. There are some who actually believe that stereotype about Africans swinging in trees when the slave boats came and that is so disheartening. The most tragic consequence of this mentality is that many African-American children are growing up today complacently ignorant about their heritage, not caring about anything other the latest pair of Air Jordans and the new 50 Cent CD.

According to African-American historian John Henrik Clarke, in order to control a people, you must first control what they think about themselves and how they regard their history and culture. And when they feel ashamed of their culture and their history, prison chains are not necessary.
That is so true. Many generations of African Americans have been poisoned with self-hatred as a result of the lack of knowledge of ourselves and our past. Some of us have forgotten about the blood, sweat, and tears of Africans who were brought to this country against their will and whose blood still runs deeply in our veins.

That is why it is so important to know one’s heritage. We have to break the cycle of complacent ignorance when it comes to our ethnic past. We know that the school system is not going to teach our children about their heritage. We cannot let another generation of African-American children suffer from cultural degradation. In our veins, flow the blood of kings and queens who fought and died for their beliefs and who would be saddened by the state of their descendents who have forgotten where they come from.

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Kwanzaa's Role - African-American Principles - Celebrating Black History & Hope

Assessment

Kwanzaa's primary role is to provide guiding principles to African-Americans. Kwanzaa is only secondarily about Kiswahili words, African symbols, clothing and ceremony. By celebrating Kwanzaa we should be celebrating lives that practice personal values rather than simply participating in a public display. Kwanzaa's principles are designed to strengthen individual lives first and foremost.

Kwanzaa should have renewed significance each year because each growing season is different. The seven principles are the tools to help us cultivate and harvest fruitful lives. The essence of Kwanzaa is reflected in the personal growth resulting from these principles.

December 26th - Unity (Umoja)

Mind, body and spirit must work together to achieve a goal.

December 27th - Self-determination (Kujichagulia)

Choose your own standards and values. Self-determination is the process of becoming your true self.

December 28th - Collective work and responsibility(Ujima)

To show appreciation for having life, each person has the duty to work to be their best.

December 29th - Cooperative economics (Ujamaa)

Make good use of all your resources by using them in ways and places that uphold the principles.

December 30th - Purpose (Nia)

Purpose is rooted in the soul. Achievement without purpose is not success. Success is a byproduct of a life with purpose.

December 31st - Creativity (Kuumba)

Nothing exists without creativity. We can contribute our creativity to humanity by understanding, developing and using our natural interests and abilities.

January 1st - Faith (Imani)

Faith flows from the mind as a positive mental attitude. Faith provides enduring power, influence and light.

Commitment

Commit to positive changes by concentrating and meditating on these principles. Even if this occurs in privacy, this is a successful Kwanzaa celebration. If we are to celebrate any fruits of the harvest, we must plant, cultivate and live the principles of Kwanzaa throughout the year. Kwanzaa is a part of our Black history and hope.

Usiku practices these principles on Writer's Whirlpool and in his book, Eloquence: Rhythm & Renaissance. Poetry and short stories interspersed with African and African-American history, culture and ancestry

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Dr Carter G Woodson - The Founder and Spirit of Black History Month

I recently did a search on Black History Month in Google and to my surprise 2,470,000 sites were listed on the subject. To my dismay, out of the top 10 sites, very little was said about the Founder of Black History Month (formerly Negro History Week) Dr. Carter G. Woodson. Even less was said about why it was formed in the first place.

Dr. Carter G. Woodson created what is now known as Black History Month not just to add "The Negro" into history, but to rewrite what had been written of him. In his classic work, "The Mis-education of the Negro" Dr. Woodson details how in nearly every class and subject in school The Negro is portrayed as inferior if portrayed at all. His special talents and gifts were never highlighted in a way that would make him feel equal as a member of a multicultural society. And, in most classes, it was taught that The Negro had contributed nothing of value to civilizations present or past. Dr. Woodson started Negro History week to infuse the Negro with a proper self-image and worldview that would make him desire to unify and become a constructive force in the development of his people.

So here we are today in 2008, 82 years from the inception of Negro History Week. Can we say that the spirit of Dr. Carter G. Woodson still exists in Black History Month? Every February we are reminded of pretty much the same characters...Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, Malcolm X, Frederick Douglas, W.E.B. DuBois, etc. People don their Kente Clothes and hold celebrations to recite speeches by these African American heroes. We buy a few trinkets, sing some songs and go home. Black History Month has become a month of semi-cultural events centered around corporate profit and keeping the African American mind docile, opposed to revolutionary.

"...to unify and become a constructive force in the development of your people..." That thought alone is revolutionary. Dr. Carter G. Woodson wanted Negro History week to inspire us to work together to make the Black Family at least equal to other cultures economically, socially, culturally, politically and in education. He was a living and a prime example of that which he sought to achieve in all of us.

Dr. Woodson was the Second African American to receive a PhD from Harvard University after receiving his Bachelors Degree from University of Illinois and studying at Sorbonne University in France. He taught in High School and was a Principal for 5 years. He studied educational systems from America to Malaysia and went on to become the Supervisor of Schools in the Philippines for 3 years. He was the Dean of the Liberal Arts School at Howard University. And, with all his educational accomplishments, he still found time to write as a columnist for Marcus Garvey's Negro World. He authored over 18 books and publications dealing with the Life and History of the Negro. He started the Association for the Study of Negro Life, which published the Journal of Negro Life. He started "Associated Publishing" the oldest African American book publishing company. And, he founded Negro History Week now know as Black History Month.

He accomplished all of the above to instill in us a desire for unity. And, for all of us to become a constructive force in the development of Black people. Educator, Historian, Entrepreneur, Author and Publisher, Dr. Carter G. Woodson is the Spirit of Black History month and should be remembered as such.

Carter G. Woodson's classic, "The Mis-Education of the Negro" is available to download online for the first time ever as an Audiobook, at http://www.themiseducationofthenegro.com.

As a Digital Technology Consultant and publisher of THE ANTHONY REPORT (http://www.theanthonyreport.com), Anthony Stewart specializes in Media Content Production. He has over 10 years experience in Graphic Design, Video Production, Web Design, Interactive CD-ROM and DVD Authoring. He is fluent on both Mac and Windows operating system platforms and has built and serviced computer systems for clients since 1996.

His Media Design and Video Production clients have included, multi-platinum rappers Nelly and Lil Wayne, NBA superstars Carmelo Anthony and Marquis Daniels, MichCon, Blue Cross Blue Shield, and Daimler-Chrysler. He has also done extensive work for Loose Cannon Entertainment, the company behind recent NBA All Star Weekend Celebrity Main Events and Nelly & Jermaine Dupri's Celebrity Weekends. Anthony has directed and produced several television shows, which include Everyday Cooking, Showreel, and the Digital Bridge. He is currently developing two shows for network cable in the areas of technology and health.

Anthony Stewart resides in St. Louis, Missouri.

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How Black History Can Solve Growing Gang Problems

By Roy Primm

With pesky gang problems continuing to mushroom not only in major cities across the country, but seeping into small towns and communities also, what's the solution? Law enforcement? Education? Gang Prevention Programs?

Many of these attempts has at best helped to stifle gang growth and at worse fueled or covered up the cause, similar to placing a band-aid over a gunshot wound. But a growing number of African American activist, educators and even politicians are looking to Black history as another solution. Many African American educators including Dr. Ashwa Kwasi, lectures extensively to young African Americans on their history. Dr. Kwasi has also lectured in prisons across America to young gang members.

"It's harder for a blue rag wearing gang member to shoot a red rag wearing gang member when they know their sacred history," says the Dr. Kwasi, who host tours each year to Africa and ancient Egypt.

Unfortunately, most African American young people consider their history as beginning with slavery and ending with the Martin Luther King" I Have A Dream" speech. Still most schools ignore most of the contributions African Americans have contributed to this country beyond Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks.

When gang members discover Greeks and Romans traveled to Timbuktu to obtain not only physical treasures, but mental intellectual treasures. For example, books, ideas for schools of learning, medical techniques and other sources for healing, their attitudes change.

Gang members have put down their guns, stop hating one another and took control of their lives in productive ways by knowing their history. The most hard core gang members have wept like babies when they discover what their ancestors accomplished, went through and suffered so they could live.

A major push is on to include more Black history in public schools to foster more tolerance and understanding. Despite a more tolerant White America when it comes to racial issues, most White youth consider African Americans biggest contribution to America as sports and entertainment. The average American including most Blacks have no idea the contributions Blacks have made to America. From George Washington Carver, Charles Drew and Booker T. Washington alone you could count hundreds of products used world-wide today.

Many people don't know other inventions we use daily without thinking came from the mind of Black men. For example, the stop light,(Garret Morgan) the refrigerator (John Standard), the lawn mower (John Burr) and a host of others. With the gang problem spreading like a fungus in damp weather, no solution should go without notice. Every answer should have a voice - and Black history is that voice.

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African American Music; The History Of

When I saw this title, I was afraid and I’m still afraid regarding my opinion about the subject. The subject is complex and difficult so I cannot resolve it overnight. I am an African. I do things the African way. I cannot write about African American music like a Western scholar. In my culture we live the past and the future in the present. When I listen to some African American music I can feel the past, the present and the future all at the same time. Now, the best way for me to handle this subject is to work by questions and answers.

[Question] Yaya! Who do you think you are?

Yaya Diallo - I don't think! I am Farafin, which means I am a dark skin man. The word Africa is the Arabic name for our continent. In Bambara we call the so-called "Africa" Farafina. Farafina means the land of dark skin people. I am from Farafina and I am proud of it. I don't want to be somebody else. People in general say African American. I would say American Farafin, which means dark skin human being who lives in America.

[Question] What is your African background?

Yaya Diallo - I come from far away. I was born in 1946 in Fienso (French Sudan), now Mali. My parents were nomadic. When I was very young I used to travel a lot. I grew up in the bush far from any western civilization. The music that I heard was very traditional and played live. I did not have a radio or TV. I had the opportunity to listen to the music of the different ethnic groups from the Ivory Coast, Burkina and Ghana. In some villages I heard Muslim songs coming from the mosques. By night, I would enjoy the frog symphonic orchestras. From 1946 to 1960 I was living in complete nature. My musical training is a long story but you can learn more from my book The Healing Drum.

[Question] What are your feelings about the civilized world?

Yaya Diallo - In the city I had strange feelings. I saw people listen to music through what I thought was two kinds of boxes. The first was a radio. You could change the singer with the tuning button, I thought. The second needed records. It read 78, 45 and 33 1/2. You had to adjust everything with something but I did not have a clue as to what. Even still, the only music that I heard was the Beatles, Rolling Stones and Johnny Holliday.

[Question] What do you think about the word African American?

Yaya Diallo - Dark skin people living in America are not different from people I met in Africa (Farafina). To me they are just different ethnic groups like the Yoruba, the Bantou, the Zoulou or the Touareg. Africa is not one culture. We have thousands and thousands of languages and different music. My wife is an African American from Louisville, KY. Her mother is from Dark Corner, MS and her father from Jackson, TN. Like my wife and family there was one African American man, James Brown, who saved my life with his music.

[Question] How can an African American man save the life of a traditional African?

Yaya Diallo - In 1967 I left my country to go to Montreal, Canada. On my way, in Paris, I saw a big picture of James Brown in the Olympia Theater. In my mind I thought, "Oh! A black man in Olympia in Paris, France." In Montreal I was looking for a place to dance or listen to the music that I loved. One day I found a radio station that played black music. I heard James Brown and felt at home.

[Question] What do you think about African American music?

Yaya Diallo - I always say that I don't think, I feel. When we talk about African American music we talk about Spirituals, Blues, Funk, Jazz, Gospel, Rap, dance music, etc. I want to talk on each one by one.

When people in Canada were dancing the twist, jerk and go-go, in my country a French man named Johnny Holliday was playing bad versions of Wilson Pickett and Ray Charles’ music in French. In America I found out this French man was a robber. He stole the music, sang it in French and looked like a genius for us Africans.

[Question] What did you feel when you started to dance?

Yaya Diallo - I used to go out to dance to Wilson Pickett, James Brown, and Sly and the Family Stone’s music. For me they were Africans. They had good beats, good feelings and most important, African Soul. I did not feel that from Chinese or European music. In the 70s I discovered the Funk music, The O'Jays, Parliament, Ohio Players, Kool and the Gang and JR Walker and the All Stars. I felt I was at home when I knew the Motown Family (Smokey Robinson, Diana Ross and the Supremes, the Temptations and Stevie Wonder). I could survive because I had those kinds of musicians.

[Question] In terms of music, what is the link between African and African Americans?

Yaya Diallo - African Americans are Africans from the village and sadly they just don't know it! When you listen to the music you can find out. Kool and The Gang played Funky Stuff. When you listen to the drum part you will get the Dounouba part of the dance Sounou. Sounou was played in the 15th century and today is the dance young people love. In Africa we learn the past in the present and teach it to the next generation. The African Americans sometimes do not know how African they are.

[Question] Why can you say that they are African?

Yaya Diallo - The first time I heard the Four Tops I thought I was listening to the Bambara Farmers in the evening after a hard working day. The Temptations reminded me of the men Fire dancers and singers. I can listen to Temptations but I am afraid to see them. I am not initiated to the Fire dance and the music brings out memories about the secret ceremonies that happened afar in the village. Aretha Franklin is for me a great Djeli-mousso coming from the Empire of Mali in the 13th century. When I listen to African American music I don't worry about the meaning, only what I feel.

[Question] What do you think about Jazz?

Yaya Diallo - Really, to tell the truth, I don't feel jazz. Many people coming from Africa feel the same way. I learned about jazz in 1980 when I recorded my first album, Nangape, on Onzou Records. That opened the door for me with jazz. Jazz magazines like Cadence and Down Beat wrote articles on me like I was a "jazz man." I was invited to do workshops at the Creative Music Studio in Woodstock, NY. I met jazz big names like Art Blakey. He said, "Yaya is the only African that I can jazz, that I can play with and be comfortable." I completed a trio with Don Cherry and Ed Blackwell in the Symphony Space in New York.

[Question] What about Gospel?

Yaya Diallo - To me gospel means religion or church but my father-in-law changed my mind. When going to church with him I saw a big band and a big choir. People were singing and I forgot that I was in church. I was surprised; I saw ladies in a trance like in my village but they called it shouting. This reminded me of the Mania Secret Society where only woman go into a trance when praising god (See The Healing Drum).

[Question] What is rap?

Yaya Diallo - I love rap! I use to lie about buying rap and say that it was for my children. Rap is the old tradition of the Fulani people in Mali. It tells life stories through poetry that is recited quickly. Nomadic people have to explain their daily journey through this same quick form, but without the foul language. Today, the young people think that they have reinvented the wheel.

[Question] Yaya, what is wrong with African American music today?

Yaya Diallo - Today everything is easy. Instead of buying a drum set you buy a drum machine. Computers do everything. You can get almost every sound by pressing a button. This is the type of world that we live in today. The young Africans love it like we used to love James Brown. Time is the only thing that has changed!

[Question] How did African American music change American Society?

Yaya Diallo - We changed everything! We changed the style of dance; we created new sounds, new styles, and new way to dress ... EVERYTHING! Country music is the white version of the Blues. Rock-n-roll comes from our music. People forget that Jimmie Hendricks was a Blues player that just changed his sound and look. Without James Brown, Sly and Family Stone and the Motown Family there would be no Madonna, no Celiene Dion, no techno, and no disco. African Americans brought this to the world. It is sad because people do not recognize it. We changed the world and it will never be the same again.

[Question] How do people know you in America?

Yaya Diallo - I am the author of two books, The Healing Drum and At the Threshold of the African Soul. I have four CDs, Nanagape, The Healing Drum, Dombaa Folee, and Dounoukan. I thank Onzou Records, the first company that trusted me to make my first album in 1980. That was not easy!

"The History of African American Music" by Malian musician/author Yaya Diallo was written to celebrate Black History Month. The article is translated into English by LaKesha Churn and edited for English grammar and clarification by Stephen Conroy, Producer/Publisher of the independent label to first produce Yaya Diallo in 1980 on Onzou records, http://www.onzou.com

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